Coordinates	3°8′51″N101°41′36″N
native name	''République togolaise''
conventional long name	Togolese Republic
common name	Togo
image coat	Coat of arms of Togo.svg
symbol type	Coat of Arms
map caption	Location of Togo within the African Union
national motto	"Travail, Liberté, Patrie"(French)"Work, Liberty, Homeland"
national anthem	''Salut à toi, pays de nos aïeux''(French)"Hail to thee, land of our forefathers"
official languages	French
languages type	Vernacular languages
Languages	Gbe languages such as Ewe, Mina and Aja; Kabiyé; and others.
demonym	Togolese
capital	Lomé
latns	N
Coordinates	6°7′55″N1°13′22″N
longew	E
largest city	Lomé
government type	Republic
leader title1	President
leader name1	Faure Gnassingbé
leader title2	Prime Minister
leader name2	Gilbert Houngbo
area rank	125th
area magnitude	1 E10
area km2	56,785
area sq mi	21,925
percent water	4.2
population estimate	6,619,000
population estimate rank	101st1
population estimate year	2009
population density km2	116.6
population density sq mi	301.9
population density rank	93rd²
gdp ppp	$5.612 billion
gdp ppp year	2009
gdp ppp per capita	$826
gdp nominal	$2.865 billion
gdp nominal year	2009
gdp nominal per capita	$422
sovereignty type	Independence
established event1	from France
established date1	April 27, 1960
hdi	0.428
hdi rank	139th
hdi year	2010
hdi category	low
currency	CFA franc
currency code	XOF
time zone	GMT
utc offset	+0
drives on	right
cctld	.tg
calling code	+228
footnotes	1 Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected. Rankings based on 2005 figures CIA World Factbook - ''Togo''² Rankings based on 2005 figures (source unknown) }}

Togo, officially the Togolese Republic (), is a country in West Africa bordered by Ghana to the west, Benin to the east and Burkina Faso to the north. It extends south to the Gulf of Guinea, on which the capital Lomé is located. Togo covers an area of approximately with a population of approximately 6.7 million. Togo is a tropical, sub-Saharan nation, highly dependent on agriculture, with a climate that provides good growing seasons. While the official language is French, there are many other languages spoken in Togo, particularly those of the Gbe family. The largest religious group in Togo are those with indigenous beliefs, but there are significant Christian and Muslim minorities. Togo is a member of the United Nations, African Union, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, La Francophonie and Economic Community of West African States.

From the 11th to the 16th century, various tribes entered the region from all directions. From the 16th century to the 18th century, the coastal region was a major trading centre for Europeans in search of slaves, earning Togo and the surrounding region the name "The Slave Coast". In 1884, Germany declared Togoland a protectorate. After World War I, rule over Togo was transferred to France. Togo gained its independence from France in 1960. In 1967, Gnassingbé Eyadéma led a successful military coup, after which he became president. At the time of his death in 2005, Eyadéma was the longest-serving leader in modern African history, after having been president for 38 years. In 2005, his son Faure Gnassingbé was elected president.

History

During the period from the 11th century to the 16th century, various tribes entered the region from all directions: the Ewé potentially from modern day Benin; and the Mina and Guin potentially from Ghana. Most settled in coastal areas.

The slave trade began in the 16th century, for the next two hundred years, the coastal region was a major trading center for Europeans in search of slaves, earning Togo and the surrounding region the name "The Slave Coast".

In an 1884 treaty signed at Togoville under the King Mlapa III, Germany declared a protectorate over a stretch of territory along the coast and gradually extended its control inland. In 1905, this became the German colony of Togoland. After the German defeat during World War I in August 1914 at the hands of British troops (coming from the Gold Coast) and French troops (coming from Dahomey), Togoland became two League of Nations mandates, administered by the Britain and France. After World War II, these mandates became UN Trust Territories. The residents of British Togoland voted to join the Gold Coast as part of the new independent nation of Ghana in 1957, and French Togoland became an autonomous republic within the French Union in 1959.

Independence came in 1960 under Sylvanus Olympio. He was assassinated in a military coup on 13 January 1963 by a group of soldiers under the direction of Sergeant Etienne Eyadema Gnassingbe. Opposition leader Nicolas Grunitzky was appointed president by the "Insurrection Committee", headed by Emmanuel Bodjollé. However, on 13 January 1967, Eyadema Gnassingbe overthrew Grunitzky in a bloodless coup and assumed the presidency, which he held from that date until his sudden death on 5 February 2005. Eyadema Gnassingbe died in early 2005 after 38 years in power, as Africa's longest-sitting dictator. The military's immediate but short-lived installation of his son, Faure Gnassingbé, as president provoked widespread international condemnation, except from France. However, some democratically elected African leaders such as Abdoulaye Wade of Senegal and Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, supported that move, thereby creating a rift within the African Union. Faure Gnassingbé stood down and called elections which he won two months later. The opposition claimed that the election was fraudulent. The developments of 2005 led to renewed questions about a commitment to democracy made by Togo in 2004 in a bid to normalise ties with the European Union, which cut off aid in 1993 over the country's human rights record. Moreover, up to 400 people were killed in the political violence surrounding the presidential poll, according to the United Nations. Around 40,000 Togolese fled to neighbouring countries.

Economy

Togo's small sub-Saharan economy is heavily dependent on both commercial and subsistence agriculture, which provides employment for 65% of the labor force. Cotton, coffee and cocoa together generate about 40% of export earnings. Togo is self-sufficient in basic food goods when harvests are normal, with occasional regional supply difficulties. In the industrial sector, phosphate mining is no longer the most important activity, as cement and clinker export to neighbouring countries have taken over. It has suffered from the collapse of world phosphate prices, increased foreign competition and financial problems. Togo's GNI per capita is US$380 (World Bank, 2005).

Togo serves as a regional commercial and trade centre. The government's decade-long effort, supported by the World Bank and the IMF, to implement economic reform measures, encourage foreign investment, and bring revenues in line with expenditures, has stalled. Political unrest, including private and public sector strikes throughout 1992 and 1993, jeopardized the reform program, shrank the tax base, and disrupted vital economic activity. The 12 January 1994 devaluation of the currency by 50% provided an important impetus to renewed structural adjustment; these efforts were facilitated by the end of strife in 1994 and a return to overt political calm. Progress depends on increased openness in government financial operations (to accommodate increased social service outlays) and possible downsizing of the armed forces, on which the regime has depended to stay in place. Lack of aid, along with depressed cocoa prices, generated a 1% fall in GDP in 1998, with growth resuming in 1999. Assuming no deterioration of the political atmosphere, growth is expected to rise.

Togo is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).

Geography

Togo is a small West African nation. It borders the Bight of Benin in the south; Ghana lies to the west; Benin to the east; and to the north Togo is bound by Burkina Faso. Togo lies mostly between latitudes 6° and 11°N, and longitudes 0° and 2°E.

In the north the land is characterized by a gently rolling savanna in contrast to the center of the country, which is characterized by hills. The south of Togo is characterized by a savanna and woodland plateau which reaches to a coastal plain with extensive lagoons and marshes. The land size is , with an average population density of 253 people per square mile (98/km²).

Climate

The climate is generally tropical with average temperatures ranging from on the coast to about in the northernmost regions, with a dry climate and characteristics of a tropical savanna. To the south there are two seasons of rain (the first between April and July and the second between (September and November), even though the average rainfall is not very high.

Administrative divisions

Togo is divided into 5 regions, which are subdivided in turn into 30 prefectures and 1 commune. From north to south the regions are Savanes, Kara, Centrale, Plateaux and Maritime.

Demographics

With an estimated population of 6,619,000 (as of 2009), Togo is the 107th largest country by population. Most of the population (65%) live in rural villages dedicated to agriculture or pastures. The population of Togo shows a strong growth: from 1961 (the year after independence) to 2003 it quintupled.

Ethnic groups

In Togo, there are about 40 different ethnic groups, the most numerous of which are the Ewe in the south who make up 32 percent of the population.(Although along the southern coastline they account for 21% of the population), Kotokoli and Tchamba in the center, Kabye people in the north (22%). The Ouatchis are (14%)of the population. Sometimes the Ewes and Ouatchis are considered the same, but the French who studied both groups considered them different people. Other Ethinic groups include the Mina, Mossi, Aja (about 8%) and Akan people. There is also a European population who make up less than 1%.

Religion

Approximately 51% of the population has indigenous beliefs, 29% is Christian, and 20% Muslim.

Languages

French (official and the language of commerce), Ewe and Gen (the two major African languages in the south), Kabiyé and Kotokoli or Tem (the two major African languages in the north)

Health

Health expenditure was at US$ 63 (PPP) per capita in 2004. Infant mortality was at 78 per 1,000 live births in 2005. Male life expectancy at birth was at 56 in 2005, whereas it was at 59.6 for females. There were 4 physicians per 100,000 people in the early 2000s. Approximately one half of the population lives below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day.

Maternal and Child Health Care

In June 2011, the United Nations Population Fund released a report on The State of the World's Midwifery. It contained new data on the midwifery workforce and policies relating to newborn and maternal mortality for 58 countries. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Togo is 350. This is compared with 447.1 in 2008 and 539.7 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 100 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality is 32. The aim of this report is to highlight ways in which the Millennium Development Goals can be achieved, particularly Goal 4 – Reduce child mortality and Goal 5 – improve maternal death. In Togo the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 2 and 1 in 67 shows us the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women.

Education

Education in Togo is compulsory for six years. In 1996, the gross primary enrollment rate was 119.6 percent, and the net primary enrollment rate was 81.3 percent. The education system has suffered from teacher shortages, lower educational quality in rural areas, and high repetition and dropout rates.

Politics

Togo's transition to democracy is stalled. Its democratic institutions remain nascent and fragile. President Gnassingbé Eyadéma, who ruled Togo under a one-party system, died of a heart attack on 5 February 2005. Gravelly ill, he was being transported by plane to a foreign country for care. He died in transit, whilst over Tunisia. Under the Togolese Constitution, the President of the Parliament, Fambaré Ouattara Natchaba, should have become President of the country, pending a new presidential election to be called within sixty days. Natchaba was out of the country, returning on an Air France plane from Paris. The Togolese army, known as Forces Armées Togolaises (FAT) - [or Togolese Armed Forces] closed the nation's borders, forcing the plane to land in nearby Benin. With an engineered power vacuum, the army announced that Eyadéma's son Faure Gnassingbé, who had been the communications minister, would succeed him. However, on 6 February 2005, the Parliament retroactively changed the Constitution, declaring that Faure would hold office for the rest of his father's term, with elections deferred until 2008. The stated justification was that Natchaba was out of the country. The parliament also moved to remove Natchaba as president and replaced him with Faure Gnassingbé, who was sworn in on 7 February 2005, despite international criticism of the succession.

The African Union described the takeover as a military coup d'état. International pressure came also from the United Nations. Within Togo, opposition to the takeover culminated in riots in which several hundred died. There were uprisings in many cities and towns, mainly located in the southern part of the country. In the town of Aného reports of a general civilian uprising followed by a large scale massacre by government troops went largely unreported. In response, Faure Gnassingbé agreed to hold elections and on 25 February, Gnassingbé resigned as president, but soon afterward accepted the nomination to run for the office in April. On 24 April 2005, Gnassingbé was elected President of Togo, receiving over 60% of the vote according to official results. His main rival in the race had been Robert (Bob) Akitani from the Union des Forces du Changement (UFC) [or Union of Forces for Change]. However electoral fraud was suspected, due to a lack of European Union or other independent oversight. Parliament designated Deputy President, Bonfoh Abbass, as interim president until the inauguration.

Current political situation

On 3 May 2005, Faure Gnassingbé was sworn in as the new president, after winning 60% of the vote, according to official results. The opposition again alleged electoral fraud, claiming the military stole ballot boxes from various polling stations in the south, and that telecommunications shutdowns were deliberately imposed to affect the results. The European Union suspended aid to Togo in support of the opposition claims, unlike the African Union and the United States which declared the vote "reasonably fair." The Nigerian president and Chair of the AU, Olusẹgun Ọbasanjọ, sought to negotiate between the incumbent government and the opposition to establish a coalition government, but rejected an AU Commission appointment of former Zambian president, Kenneth Kaunda, as special AU envoy to Togo. In June, President Gnassingbé named opposition leader Edem Kodjo as the prime Minister.

Reconciliation talks between government and opposition continued until Gnassingbé Eyadema's death in February 2005. In August both parties signed the Ouagadougou agreement calling for a transitional government to organize parliamentary elections. On 16 September, the president nominated Yaovi Agboyibor of the Action Committee for Renewal (CAR) prime minister, snubbing the major opposition party Union of the Forces of Change (UFC) which in reaction refused to join the government. Professor Léopold Gnininvi of the Democratic Convention of African Peoples (CDPA) was appointed on 20 September 2006.

In October 2007, after several postponements, elections were held under proportional representation. This allowed the less populated north to seat as many MPs as the more populated south. The president-backed party Rally of the Togolese People (RPT) won outright majority with the UFC coming second and the other parties claiming inconsequential representation. Again vote rigging accusations were leveled at the RPT supported by the civil and military security apparatus. Despite the presence of an EU observer mission, canceled ballots and illegal voting took place, the majority of which in RPT strongholds. The election was declared fair by the international community and praised as a model with little intimidation and few violent acts for the first time since a multiparty system was reinstated. On 3 December 2007 Komlan Mally of the RPT was appointed to prime minister succeeding Agboyibor. However, on 5 September 2008, after only 10 months in office, Mally resigned as prime minister of Togo.

Faure Gnassingbé got re-elected in the February 2010 presidential election with a 61% score against Jean-Pierre Fabre from the UFC, a candidate of the opposition coalition FRAC (republican front for alternance and change). In protest against this election, fights broke up between militants of the coalition and law enforcement forces. The election has been denounced by the European Union who financed it, and who has noted through its observers some irregularities during the electoral campaign.

Culture

Togo's culture reflects the influences of its many ethnic groups, the largest and most influential of which are the Ewe, Mina, Tem, Tchamba and Kabre.

French is the official language of Togo. The many indigenous African languages spoken by Togolese include: Gbe languages such as Ewe, Mina, and Aja; Kotokoli, Akessele, Bassar, Losso Kabiyé; and others.

Despite the influences of Christianity and Islam, over half of the people of Togo follow native animistic practices and beliefs.

Ewe statuary is characterized by its famous statuettes which illustrate the worship of the ibeji. Sculptures and hunting trophies were used rather than the more ubiquitous African masks. The wood-carvers of Kloto are famous for their "chains of marriage": two characters are connected by rings drawn from only one piece of wood.

The dyed fabric batiks of the artisanal center of Kloto represent stylized and coloured scenes of ancient everyday life. The loincloths used in the ceremonies of the weavers of Assahoun are famous. Works of the painter Sokey Edorh are inspired by the immense arid extents, swept by the harmattan, and where the laterite keeps the prints of the men and the animals. The plastics technician Paul Ahyi is internationally recognized today. He practices the "zota", a kind of pyroengraving, and his monumental achievements decorate Lomé.

Sport

At the Olympics

On 12 August 2008, Benjamin Boukpeti (born to a Togolese father and a French mother) won a bronze medal in the Men's K1 Kayak Slalom, the first medal ever won by a member of the Togolese team at the Olympics.

Football

As in much of Africa, football is the most popular sporting pursuit. Until 2006, Togo was very much a minor force in world football, but like fellow West African nations such as Senegal, Nigeria and Cameroon before them, the Togolese national team finally qualified for the World Cup. Emmanuel Adebayor was the force behind that unexpected qualification.

Although Togo's qualification for the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany was historic, its participation was marred by incidents and headlines. There were problems within the Togolese Football Association (Fédération Togolaise de Football - FTF) as well as between players and the Football Association. The culmination of that conflict led to the resignation of the national team coach, Otto Pfister, and the threat made by the players not to play their game against Switzerland on 16 June 2006. Ultimately, the FIFA stepped in to satisfy the players' requirements and the first boycott of a FIFA World Cup game never happened.

Until his dismissal from the team over a long-standing bonus dispute, Adebayor was largely considered the side's star player. He currently plays for Spanish giants Real Madrid on loan from Manchester City. Togo was knocked out of the tournament in the group stage after losing to South Korea, Switzerland and France.

Togo's 2006 World Cup appearance was marred by a dispute over financial bonuses, a situation that almost led to the team boycotting their match against Switzerland. Eventually, Togo did fulfill all three fixtures, failing to qualify for the second round of the competition. Over the following months, the stalemate continued to mar Togolese football, and eventually resulted in the dismissal of strike pair and Kader Coubadja-Touré, and defender Daré Nibombé in March 2007, ostensibly for "indecent remarks concerning the FTF management."

On the 8th January 2010, The Togo National Football team's bus was fired upon in Angola whilst attending the African Nations Cup being held there. The bus driver, assistant coach and team spokesman died, and two players were also injured. This led to Togo withdrawing from the tournament at the behest of the Togolese government.

On the 12th April 2010, Emmanuel Adebayor retired from duty with the Togo National team.

See also

Association Scoute du Togo

Communications in Togo

Foreign relations of Togo

Togo national football team

Transport in Togo

References

Bibliography

Piot, Charles. ''Nostalgia for the Future: West Africa After the Cold War'' (University of Chicago Press; 2010) 200 pages. Describes changes in the culture and politics of Togo in the post–Cold War era; considers how this era challenges aspects of postcolonial theory.

Schnee, Dr. Heinrich, (former Governor of German East Africa), ''German Colonization, Past and Future - the Truth about the German Colonies'', George Allen & Unwin, London, 1926.

Bullock, A.L.C., ''Germany's Colonial Demands'', Oxford University Press, 1939.

BBC News Country Profile - ''Togo''

Godfrey Mwakikagile, ''Military Coups in West Africa Since The Sixties'', Huntington, New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2001.

Bordalo, Adriano A. Savva-Bordalo, Joana. ''The Quest for Safe Drinking Water: An Example From Guine-Bissau (West Africa)''. Water Research. Vol. 41. Iss. 13. Jul 2007. p. 2978-86.

Hirsch, Dean. ''Bringing "Water of Life" to Africa. Fund Raising Management''. Feb 1989. p. 24 (3 pp.)

Mihindu-Ngoma, Prosper. ''Clean Water at Low Cost''. World Health. Geneva: Jul 1992. p. 27 (1 pp.).

Smith, Craig C. ''Rural boreholes and wells in Africa-economics of construction in hard rock terrain''. American Water Works Association. Journal. Denver: Aug 2003. Vol. 95, Iss. 8, p. 100.

External links

; Government Republic of Togo official site National Assembly of Togo official site

Chief of State and Cabinet Members

; General

Country Profile from BBC News

Togo from Encyclopaedia Britannica

Togo from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''

; News media Web Radio Togo official Web Radio

News headline links from AllAfrica.com

; Tourism

Togo Woezon Tourism

Category:African countries Category:Member states of the African Union Category:Countries bordering the Atlantic Ocean Category:Economic Community of West African States Category:French-speaking countries Category:Least developed countries Category:Member states of La Francophonie Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Category:States and territories established in 1960 Category:West Africa Category:Member states of the United Nations

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Joel Levine (born 1942) is the author of ''The Corruption of Michael Levitt''¹. He is a well regarded attorney admitted to the New York and Florida Bars. He is a certified mediator and arbitrator handling a wide variety of national and international commercial disputes. Levine was selected as one of the top mediators in Florida Trend’s Florida Legal Elite, Florida Trend² and has been awarded an AV Preeminent Rating by Martindale-Hubble.

Levine grew up in the New York area, graduated from Syosset High School (1959), SUNY Buffalo (1963) and received a J.D. from Harvard Law School (1966). He is married to Nina List and lives in Miami, Florida.

Film and television

Levine was cofounder/president and CEO of Gibraltar Entertainment, Inc. (1988–1997) where he produced 12 films and 52 episodes of a television show. Gibraltar's films have been invited to the AFI, London, Toronto, Chicago, Santa Barbara and Park City Film Festivals. ''Mortal Passions'', directed by Andrew Lane, won the Critics Award at the Deauville Film Festival (1989)³ and the Grand Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival (1990)⁴. Levine is also a member of the Screen Actors Guild and Writers Guild of America.

Film

Executive Producer with Wayne Crawford "Trade Off," Viacom Enterprises 1994 (Theresa Russell, Adam Baldwin).

Executive Producer with Wayne Crawford "Americanski Blues" ACI/A-Pix 1994 (Daniel Quinn, Ashley Laurence, Wayne Crawford).

Executive Producer "Lonely Hearts," Live Entertainment/Carolco 1992 (Eric Roberts, Beverly D'Angelo, Joanna Cassidy).

Executive Producer "Femme Fatale," Republic Pictures 1991 (Colin Firth, Billy Zane, Lisa Zane).

Executive Producer with Andrew Lane, Wayne Crawford and Mark Amin "Servants of Twilight," Vidmark Entertainment 1990 (Bruce Greenwood, Belinda Bauer, Jarrett Lennon).

Co-Executive Producer with Charles Fries Executive Producer "Peacemaker," Fries Entertainment 1990 (Robert Davi, Robert Forster, Hillary Shepard).

Executive Producer "Crime Lords," Academy Entertainment/Image Organization 1990 (Martin Hewitt, Wayne Crawford, James Hong).

Executive Producer with Andrew Lane and Wayne Crawford "Mortal Passions," MGM/UA 1989 (Zach Galligan, Michael Bowen, Sheila Kelley).

Executive Producer "Rising Storm" a/k/a "Rebel Storm" Image Organization/HBO 1989 (Zach Galligan, John Rhys Davies, June Chadwick).

Executive Producer "Headhunter," Academy Entertainment/Image Organization 1988 (Kay Lenz, Wayne Crawford, Steve Kanaly).

Executive Producer "Quiet Thunder" Live Entertainment/Image Organization 1988 (Wayne Crawford, June Chadwick, Victor Steinbach).

Executive Producer "White Ghost" Epic/Image Organization 1988 (William Katt, Martin Hewitt, Rosaling Chao).

Television

Executive Producer with Wayne Crawford of 52 episodes of "Okavango," a family adventure television show shot in Africa, starring Steve Kanaly, Wayne Crawford and Michele Scarabelli and featuring Eddie Albert, 1991 1993, FX Cable Network 1995-96⁵.

Real estate/finance

Levine was a principal in First Capital Financial Corporation, a national commercial real estate investment and financial company, which acquired approximately $750 million of commercial real estate and grew to be one of the largest real estate syndication/financial services companies in the country. While much of the success of First Capital is justifiably attributed to Chairman Seth S. Werner, Levine was involved in many aspects of the business and, of note, he created, structured and directed the first Section 351 Roll Up in the real estate industry: combining on a tax-free basis several public real estate limited partnerships with related private corporations to form a single public corporate entity which in 1984 was sold to GAMI owned and controlled by the financier Sam Zell.[cite] This vehicle was thereafter replicated by many large real estate syndication companies and affected billions of dollars in real estate investments. While the First Capital roll up was lauded by investors, many subsequent roll ups were abusive as real estate values were artificially inflated ultimately causing significant diminution of investors equity and resulted in major anti rollup legislation in the United States Congress.[cite more]⁶

Peace Corps

Levine served in the Peace Corps, Venezuela from 1966-1968. He trained in Tucson, Arizona and Mexico. He created a thrift shop for the Yaqui Native American tribe in Tucson designing an internal controls system and instructing the Native Americans on fundamental business techniques. He served the Peace Corps in Caracas and Puerto Piritu, Venezuela, working with the Ministry of Development on rural electrification cooperatives. He also designed and marketed ornamental candles; initiated sports programs; catalyzed student scholarships; and produced a Peace Corps training film⁷.

Legal aid/civil rights

Levine was awarded a Reginald Heber Smith Community Fellowship and was one of one hundred specially selected poverty lawyers serving throughout the United States (1968–1969). He served principally at Waterbury Legal Aid Society, Waterbury Conn. He specialized in economic development and housing and on Jan. 31, 1969 addressed the Connecticut Legislature on seven housing bills. In the summer of 1969 he worked in Cambridge Massachusetts with a team at the Phillips Brooks House Association, Harvard University, creating training manuals to help instruct on community organization and self help.

Teaching

In 1973 Levine was a Visiting Professor of Real Estate Finance Law, Seton Hall Law School, Newark, New Jersey.

Writer/author

Books

In 1972 Levine published his first book with Random House: ''Getting In—A Guide to Acceptance by the College of Your Choice'' (with Lawrence May) a humorous and practical approach to college admissions. He has written many articles in the legal field on subjects ranging from tenants' rights and Products Liability to Mediation and Arbitration in multiple areas. ''The Corruption of Michael Levitt'', a novel about a bright but naïve young lawyer who, despite his best intentions, is gradually corrupted by the world he's chosen, was released in 2011.

Articles

"Constructing the Construction Case: Tips, Traps and Tricks" AAA DISPUTE RESOLUTION JOURNAL (August/October 2009)—Flagship world-wide publication of the American Arbitration Association. Guidance for construction professionals and counsel in structuring contracts and handling disputes.

Contributor to Elder Mediation: A New Solution to Age-Old Problems, by Dr. John and Patti Bertschler © April, 2009. One of eighteen mediators from the United States, New Zealand, Scotland and The Netherlands contributing chapters dealing with conducting a proper intake, imbalances of power, ethics, mediation styles and building a mediation practice.

"Defendant’s View Of Mediation Inside The Plaintiff’s Caucus Room" FOR THE DEFENSE (September 2003) (DRI Magazine);

"Winning at Arbitration" THE ADVOCATE (June 2003) (Trial Lawyers Section of the Florida Bar);

"Winning at Mediation" THE ADVOCATE (July 2002) (Trial Lawyers Section of the Florida Bar);

"Obstacles And Solutions To Building A Mediation Practice" American Bar Association Section of Dispute Resolution JUST RESOLUTIONS Newsletter (Winter/Spring 2000); Reprinted Oregon Law Journal (November 2001);

"Anatomy of a Mediation Session" SPIDR NEWS (April 2000)(Society of Professionals in Dispute Resolution);

"Transformative Tools (Tool Kit for Transformative Mediation)" Association for Conflict Resolution (ACR) (on line), ACR Learning Center, (July, 2001);

Levine, J., "Buyer's Conduct as Affecting the Extent of Manufacturers' Liability in Warranty" 52 Minnesota Law Review 627 (Jan 1968); Reprinted in 1 Uniform Commercial Code Law Journal 30 (Summer 1968);

Levine, J., "Implied Warranty of Habitability," 2 University of Connecticut Law Review 61 (June 1969).

Werner, S., "Winning the Tax Battle…Losing the Economic War," American Title Insurance Company Real Estate Reporter (November 1974) (Co-collaborators Joel Levine and Richard Wollack).

Three Articles for JUMP UP, Magazine for Peace Corps Venezuela:

Levine, J., "If The Peace Corps Fulfilled Our Two-Year Military Obligation…" March 1967

Levine, J., "Ghoti(Fish)" May 1967

Levine, J., "One Two Three Four Incidents" July 1967

Levine, J., "How It Feels To Live Through an Earthquake," Syosset Advance (September 1, 1967).

Mediation and arbitration

Levine is admitted to practice in state and federal courts, mediates and arbitrates (as arbitrator) privately and for a large number of institutions (including the American Arbitration Association), the US Postal Service, national and local law firms, and many private businesses. He concentrates on complex commercial matters in the corporate, financial, real estate, construction, employment, technology, intellectual property and insurance fields. He has also served as special master⁹ and receiver on national and local cases.

Awards/guest appearances

Mr. Levine is a Harvard Law School Traphagen Distinguished Alumni Speaker and in March 2003 addressed students, faculty, and staff on a variety of subjects related to changes in our society in the last generation, opportunities in various fields, ADR and life lessons (which he's still learning).

Levine was selected to the Copyright Office, Library of Congress 2004-2005 Copyright Arbitration Royalty Panel (CARP) which determines royalty rates and distribution of royalties for the commercial use of copyrighted works when those rates cannot be successfully negotiated by copyright holders and users (e.g., broadcasters)-- including those for music and webcasting.

He was awarded a Reginald Heber Smith Community Fellowship in 1968 which in conjunction with the University of Pennsylvania and University of Michigan Law Schools trained 100 selected attorneys to practice civil rights and poverty law in low income minority communities.

Levine received a Commendation from the City of Miami Police Department, August 21, 1978 "for 'invaluable and courageous assistance' in apprehending a purse snatcher at Biscayne Boulevard and 12 Street, until police could arrive."

Levine is a frequent speaker on a variety of topics including:

Judge: National Appellate Advocacy Competition Moot Court, University of Miami's ABA Moot Arbitration Miami February 17, 2010.

Presenter/Speaker: Winning at Mediation: A "Mock" Mock Mediation at the International Claim Association (ICA) 100th Annual Education Conference on October 5, 2009 in Marco Island Florida.

Moderator and Panelist: First and Second Annual Legal Symposia on the World of Film and Television: Presented by The Florida Bar Continuing Legal Education Committee and the Entertainment, Arts and Sports Law Section, May 3, 1999, Coral Gables, FL, April 30, 2000 Boca Raton Florida. Topics included: Financing, Producing and Directing in television and music and problem solving and Mediation in the entertainment industry.

Speaker, the John E. Anderson Graduate School of Management at UCLA, February 28, 1990, Business Career Night.

Guest Instructor, Adam Hill Acting School, Hollywood, Ca. September 1990.

Judge, Inner City Cultural Center's Ira Aldridge talent competition at UCLA, April 1991.

Levine has spoken to and trained mediators and arbitrators at multiple events from 2000 to present including:

Lecturer/Trainer: Ethics and Practice of the Practice of Mediation: Course Name: Circuit Civil Mediation Training Program; Sponsor: Center For Continuing Education (University of Miami Law School) and Mediation Services, Inc. September 17, 2006

Presenter/Trainer: Chairing An Arbitration Panel: Managing Procedures, Process & Dynamics. Facilitator for arbitrator training in serving as Chair of Arbitration Panel from Preliminary Hearing through Hearing and Awards. Sponsored by American Arbitration Association Department of Education, Training & ADR Resources. AAA Offices, Miami Florida. September 30, 2005.

Radio appearances

Guest on Radio show of Saundra Johnson, Business Radio Network, Market Week, Feb. 11, 1992, National Broadcast.

Guest on Radio show of Rita Rochelle, Voice of America, Feb. 5, 1992, National Broadcast.

Guest on The Ron Segge Radio Show, Sun Radio, December 18, 1991, National Broadcast.

Guest on Radio show of Chuck Ashman, KBLA, Jan. 7, 1992, Local-Los Angeles.

Guest on Radio show of Rick Joyce, KWNK, Morning Magazine, Jan. 27, 1991, Local-Los Angeles.

Guest on Radio show of Jim Diana, WRVR, August 1972, Local-New York Metropolitan Area.

From 1972 to 1973 Mr. Levine was a guest on numerous radio shows in the New York are speaking about his book Getting In — A Guide to Acceptance by the College of Your Choice and offering advice to listeners on how to get into their first choice university.

Subject of article

Variety, March 3, 1976, March 15 and 20, 1989, April 8, 1991, Aug. 10, 1992.

Hollywood Reporter, June 15, 1988, March 17, 1989, Nov. 27, 1989.

Drama-Logue, December 14–20, 1989.

South Miami News, November 17, 1975.

Syosset Tribune, December 29, 1969.

Waterbury Republican, February 2, 1969.

New Haven Journal-Courrier, February 1, 1969.

Hartford Courant, February 1, 1969.

Volunteer

Volunteer, Villa Maria Nursing and Rehabilitation Center, North Miami, Florida 1997-1998 working with seriously ill and handicapped patients.

References

¹ Levine, J., The Corruption of Michael Levitt, Lulu.com 2011. Hard cover and soft cover and electronic editions. Levine, J., The Corruption of Michael Levitt, Amazon.com 2011. eBook and Kindle Reader editions.

² http://www.floridatrend.com/wide_article.asp?aID=47074

³ http://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000207/1989

⁴ http://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000631/1990

⁵ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0505847/#Producer

⁶ DeMott, Deborah A., Rollups of Limited Partnerships: Questions of Regulation and Fairness (1992). Duke Law Faculty Scholarship. Paper 330.

⁷ Verification of Returned Peace Corps Volunteers available from: Peace Corps/Paul D. Coverdell Peace Corps Headquarters 1111 20th Street, NW/Washington, D.C. 20526/Toll Free: 800.424.8580

⁸ Levine, J. and May, L., GETTING IN—A Guide to Acceptance by the College of Your Choice, Random House 1972. Hard cover and soft cover editions.

⁹Appointed Special Master in Peggy Taylor and Lemoyne K. Young v. American Bankers Insurance Group, Inc., Bankers American Life Assurance Company, American Bankers Insurance Company of Florida and Chase Manhattan Group, as Successor to Chemical Banking Corp., Index No. 96/602485, P.C. No. 1167, IAS Part 27, filed in the Supreme Court of the State of New York.

Category:1942 births Category:Living people

Coordinates	3°8′51″N101°41′36″N
name	Linus Torvalds
birth name	Linus Benedict Torvalds
birth date	December 28, 1969
birth place	Helsinki, Finland
residence	Portland, Oregon
nationality	Finnish American
ethnicity	Swedish-speaking Finn
known for	Linux kernel, Git
employer	Linux Foundation
occupation	Software engineer
spouse	Tove Torvalds née Monni
children	3
parents	Nils Torvalds (father)Anna Torvalds (mother)
relatives	Ole Torvalds (grandfather)
website	torvalds-family.blogspot.comcs.helsinki.fi/u/torvalds (outdated)
footnotes	}}

Linus Benedict Torvalds (; born December 28, 1969 in Helsinki, Finland) is a Finnish software engineer and hacker, best known for having initiated the development of the Linux kernel. He later became the chief architect of the Linux kernel, and now acts as the project's coordinator. He also created the revision control system Git.

Biography

Early years

Torvalds was born in Helsinki, Finland. He is the son of journalists Anna and Nils Torvalds, and the grandson of poet Ole Torvalds. Both of his parents were campus radicals at the University of Helsinki in the 1960s. His family belongs to the Swedish-speaking minority (5.5%) of Finland's population. Torvalds was named after Linus Pauling, the American Nobel Prize-winning chemist, although in the book ''Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution'', Torvalds is quoted as saying, "I think I was named equally for Linus the Peanuts cartoon character", noting that this makes him half "Nobel-prize-winning chemist" and half "blanket-carrying cartoon character".

Torvalds attended the University of Helsinki between 1988 and 1996, graduating with a master's degree in computer science from NODES research group. His academic career was interrupted after his first year of study when he joined the Finnish Army, selecting the 11-month officer training program to fulfill the mandatory military service of Finland. In the army he holds the rank of second lieutenant, with the role of a ballistic calculation officer. In 1990, he resumed his university studies, and was exposed to UNIX for the first time, in the form of a DEC MicroVAX running ULTRIX. His M.Sc. thesis was titled ''Linux: A Portable Operating System''.

His interest in computers began with a Commodore VIC-20. After the VIC-20 he purchased a Sinclair QL, which he modified extensively, especially its operating system. He programmed an assembly language and a text editor for the QL, as well as a few games. He is known to have written a ''Pac-Man'' clone named ''Cool Man''. On January 5, 1991 he purchased an Intel 80386-based IBM PC and spent a month playing the game ''Prince of Persia'' before receiving his MINIX copy, which in turn enabled him to begin work on Linux.

Later years

After a visit to Transmeta in late 1996, Torvalds accepted a position at the company in California, where he would work from February 1997 to June 2003. He then moved to the Open Source Development Labs, which has since merged with the Free Standards Group to become the Linux Foundation, under whose auspices he continues to work. In June 2004, Torvalds and his family moved to Portland, Oregon, to be closer to the OSDL's Beaverton, Oregon–based headquarters.

From 1997 to 1999, he was involved in 86open helping to choose the standard binary format for Linux and Unix. In 1999, he was named to the MIT Technology Review TR100 as one of the top 100 innovators in the world under the age of 35.

Red Hat and VA Linux, both leading developers of Linux-based software, presented Torvalds with stock options in gratitude for his creation. In 1999, both companies went public and Torvalds' share value temporarily shot up to roughly $20 million.

His personal mascot is a penguin nicknamed Tux, which has been widely adopted by the Linux community as the mascot of the Linux kernel.

Although Torvalds believes "open source is the only right way to do software", he also has said that he uses the "best tool for the job", even if that includes proprietary software. He was criticized for his use and alleged advocacy of the proprietary BitKeeper software for version control in the Linux kernel. However, Torvalds subsequently wrote a free-software replacement for BitKeeper called Git. Torvalds has commented on official GNOME developmental mailing lists that, in terms of desktop environments, he encourages users to switch to KDE. However, Torvalds thought KDE 4.0 was a "disaster" because of its lack of maturity, so he switched to GNOME. Dissatisfied with the loss of productivity, he switched to XFCE after the GNOME3 release, with another harsh post against GNOME.

The Linus/Linux connection

Initially Torvalds wanted to call the kernel he developed ''Freax'' (a combination of "free", "freak", and the letter X to indicate that it is a Unix-like system), but his friend Ari Lemmke, who administered the FTP server where the kernel was first hosted for downloading, named Torvalds' directory ''linux''.

Authority and trademark

As of 2006, approximately two percent of the Linux kernel was written by Torvalds himself. As thousands have contributed code to the Linux kernel, such a percentage represents one of the largest personal contributions to the overall amount of code. Torvalds remains the ultimate authority on what new code is incorporated into the standard Linux kernel.

Torvalds owns the "Linux" trademark, and monitors use of it chiefly through the Linux Mark Institute.

Personal life

Linus Torvalds is married to Tove Torvalds (née Monni) — a six-time Finnish national karate champion — whom he first met in the autumn of 1993. Torvalds was running introductory computer laboratory exercises for students and instructed the course attendants to send him an e-mail as a test, to which Tove responded with an e-mail asking for a date. Tove and Linus were later married and have three daughters, Patricia Miranda (*5.12.1996), Daniela Yolanda (*16.4.1998), and Celeste Amanda (*20.11.2000), two of whom were born in the United States. Linux kernel's ''reboot'' system call accepts their dates of birth (written in hexadecimal) as magic values.

Torvalds describes himself as "completely a-religious — atheist", adding that "I find that people seem to think religion brings morals and appreciation of nature. I actually think it detracts from both. It gives people the excuse to say, 'Oh, nature was just created,' and so the act of creation is seen to be something miraculous. I appreciate the fact that, 'Wow, it's incredible that something like this could have happened in the first place.'" He later added that while in Europe religion is mostly a personal issue, in America it has become very politicized. When discussing the issue of church and state separation, Linus also said, "Yeah, it's kind of ironic that in many European countries, there is actually a kind of legal binding between the state and the state religion."

In 2010, Torvalds became a United States citizen and registered to vote in the United States; he is unaffiliated with any U.S. political party, saying, "I have way too much personal pride to want to be associated with any of them, quite frankly."

Recognition

;Academics In 1997, Torvalds received his Master degree (Laudatur Grade) from Department of Computer Science, University of Helsinki. Two years later he received honorary doctor status at Stockholm University, and in 2000 he received the same honor from his ''alma mater''.

In August 2005, Torvalds received the Vollum Award from Reed College.

;Industry In 1998 Torvalds received an EFF Pioneer Award. In 2000 he was awarded the Lovelace Medal from the British Computer Society. In 2001, he shared the Takeda Award for Social/Economic Well-Being with Richard Stallman and Ken Sakamura. In 2008, he was inducted into the Hall of Fellows of the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California. He was awarded the C&C Prize by the NEC Corporation in 2010 for "contributions to the advancement of the information technology industry, education, research, and the improvement of our lives".

;Media ''Time'' magazine has recognized Torvalds multiple times: In 2000, he was 17th in their Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century Poll. In 2004, he was named one of the most influential people in the world In 2006, the magazine's Europe edition named him one of the revolutionary heroes of the past 60 years.

''InfoWorld'' presented him with the 2000 Award for Industry Achievement. In 2005 Torvalds appeared as one of "the best managers" in a survey by ''BusinessWeek''. In 2006, ''Business 2.0'' magazine named him one of "10 people who don't matter" because the growth of Linux has shrunk Torvalds' individual impact.

In summer 2004, viewers of YLE (the Finnish Broadcasting Company) placed Torvalds 16th in the network's 100 Greatest Finns. In 2010, as part of a series called ''The Britannica Guide to the World's Most Influential People'', Torvalds was listed among ''The 100 Most Influential Inventors of All Time'' (ISBN 9781615300037).

;Other

In 1996, an asteroid (9793 Torvalds) was named after him.

The 1999 novel ''Cryptonomicon'' by Neal Stephenson features several characters who use "Finux", a Unix-like operating system developed in Finland. In the 2001 film ''Swordfish'', the hacker Axl Torvalds was a reference to Linus because of his contributions to Linux which is the primary operating system of hackers. As of March 2011, he has been granted 35 patents worldwide (application and granted patents).

See also

Linus' Law

Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate

Notes

References

External links

Linus' blog

Linus Torvalds and His Five Entrepreneurial Lessons

Ten years of NODES

Torvalds interview

Category:Computer pioneers Category:Linux kernel hackers Category:Finnish bloggers Category:Finnish computer programmers Category:Free software programmers Category:People in information technology Category:Swedish-speaking Finns Category:University of Helsinki alumni Category:Finnish atheists Category:1969 births Category:Living people Category:American people of Finnish descent Category:People from Helsinki Category:People from Portland, Oregon Category:TR35 winners

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Hermann Scheer (April 29, 1944 – October 14, 2010) was a Social Democrat member of the German Bundestag (Parliament), President of Eurosolar (The European Association for Renewable Energy) and General Chairman of the World Council for Renewable Energy. In 1999, Scheer was awarded the Right Livelihood Award for his "indefatigable work for the promotion of solar energy worldwide".

Scheer believed that the continuation of current patterns of energy supply and use will be environmentally damaging, with renewable energy being the only realistic alternative. Scheer had concluded that it is technically and environmentally feasible to harness enough solar radiation to achieve a total replacement of the foclear (fossil/nuclear) energy system by a global renewable energy economy. The main obstacle to such a change is seen to be political, not technical or economic. In 1999 he was one of the initiators of the German feed-in tariffs that were the major source of the rise of renewable energies in Germany during the following years.

Life

Scheer was born in Wehrheim, and became a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1965. As a student, while majoring in economics and law, he was active in student politics at the University of Heidelberg, and participated in the German student movement of the 1960s. In 1979, he graduated from the Free University of Berlin as a doctor of political science.

He became a member of the Bundestag in 1980, representing Baden-Württemberg; in 1993, he also became a member of the federal steering committee (''Bundesvorstand'') of the Social Democratic Party. Scheer had a solid track record as an anti-establishment figure within his own party.

He called the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia a war crime.

In his election districts, he always had to rely on a suitable placement on the party list to receive his mandates. He never had an executive post in government. In the preelection shadow cabinet of Andrea Ypsilanti, candidate for prime minister of Hesse in 2008, Scheer was pegged unsuccessfully as minister for development, environment and economics. The final list long after the election mentioned him as secretary of a downsized ministry of economics Scheer announced ambitious energy policy plans. The announcement of Scheer boosted the Ypsilanti campaign in the beginning but enhanced innerparty doubts about a non realistic approach in Hesses political and economic surroundings which made him fail finally. Scheer assumed Ypsilantis policies would result in a big big triumph of his party at the federal elections 2009.

His book Energy Autonomy was instrumental in the making of the film Die 4. Revolution – Energy Autonomy in which he stresses the revolution in capitalist ownership of our energy supply.

Death

Fourteen days before his death he was seen live on German television making a statement in the Bundestag about a highly explosive ("hochbrisant") 60 billion euro breach of contract ("Vertragsbruch") by Germany's privately owned nuclear power corporations. He suddenly died in a hospital in Berlin from heart failure after an unspecified short and severe illness.

Books

''Energy Autonomy'', The Economic, Social and Technological Case for Renewable Energy, 2006, Earthscan, ISBN 184473556

''A Solar Manifesto'', 2005, Earthscan, ISBN 1902916514

''The Solar Economy'', Renewable Energy for a Sustainable Global Future , 2004, Earthscan, ISBN 1844070751

See also

Eurosolar

Renewable energy commercialization

International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)

Rolf Disch

Anti-nuclear movement in Germany

Michael Sladek

World Future Council

Hans-Josef Fell

Die 4. Revolution – Energy Autonomy

References

External links

Official website

Hermann Scheer in One of His Final Interviews - video by ''Democracy Now!''

Category:People associated with solar power Category:People from Hesse-Nassau Category:Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians Category:Members of the Bundestag Category:Non-fiction environmental writers Category:Right Livelihood Award laureates Category:1944 births Category:2010 deaths Category:People associated with renewable energy Category:Renewable-energy economy Category:Recipients of the Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany

cs:Hermann Scheer de:Hermann Scheer es:Hermann Scheer fr:Hermann Scheer it:Hermann Scheer nl:Hermann Scheer pt:Hermann Scheer sk:Hermann Scheer